वह प्रसिद्ध मध्यकालीन व्यापारिक वस्तु क्या थी जिसके लिए कालीकट (कोझीकोड) प्रसिद्ध था?

Medieval Indian History covers the period from approximately 700 CE to 1750 CE, including the Arab invasion, Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagara Empire, Bahmani Sultanate, Mughal Empire, and Maratha Confederacy. Key topics include rulers, their policies, architecture, art, administration, and revenue systems. It is important for UPSC Prelims and Mains, SSC CGL, and State PCS exams.

Important Delhi Sultanate rulers: Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210, built Qutub Minar), Iltutmish (1211-1236, consolidated the sultanate), Razia Sultana (first woman sultan, 1236-1240), Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316, market reforms and Mongol repulsion), Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351, transferred capital to Daulatabad), and Ibrahim Lodi (defeated by Babur in 1526).

The Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646 CE) was founded by Harihara I and Bukka I of the Sangama dynasty. It was a major Hindu empire that acted as a bulwark against Muslim expansion into South India. The most famous ruler was Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529). The capital Hampi in present-day Karnataka is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Bhakti Movement (7th-17th centuries) was a major religious reform movement that emphasized personal devotion to God over rituals and caste distinctions. Major Bhakti saints: Kabir (Hindu-Muslim unity), Mirabai (devotion to Krishna), Tukaram (Maharashtra), Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Bengal), Ramananda, and Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism). The movement promoted social equality and regional languages.

Mughal administration: Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system where nobles held military ranks called mansabs. The empire was divided into Subas (provinces) headed by Subahdars. Todar Mal's Zabti system (Ain-i-Dahsala) standardized land revenue by measuring land and fixing rates based on 10-year average prices. Revenue administration reforms are important for UPSC history mains.