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The Mandal Commission (Second Backward Classes Commission) chaired by B. Mandal had recommended 27% reservation for Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in central government jobs in 1980. Singh's government implemented these recommendations in 1990 leading to massive protests including incidents of self-immolation. Supreme Court upheld OBC reservation with a 50% cap in 1992.
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Modern Indian History (1757-1947) covers the arrival of European powers, British East India Company rule, 1857 Revolt, colonial policies, social reform movements, and the Independence movement. Key topics for UPSC, SSC CGL, and Railway exams include British expansion, Revenue policies (Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, Mahalwari), and major freedom struggles.
The 1857 Revolt (also called the First War of Independence or Sepoy Mutiny) was a major rebellion against British rule. Immediate cause: greased cartridges for Enfield rifles offended Hindu and Muslim soldiers. Key centers: Meerut, Delhi (Bahadur Shah Zafar), Lucknow (Begum Hazrat Mahal), Jhansi (Rani Lakshmibai). The British Crown directly took control from the East India Company after it was suppressed.
Major British economic policies: Permanent Settlement (1793) by Cornwallis fixed zamindars as land revenue collectors. Ryotwari System collected revenue directly from farmers in Tamil Nadu and Bombay. Drain of Wealth theory by Dadabhai Naoroji described India's wealth being drained to Britain. Deindustrialization destroyed Indian textile and handicraft industries.
Major social reform movements: Brahmo Samaj (1828) by Raja Ram Mohan Roy - opposed sati, supported widow remarriage and women's education. Arya Samaj (1875) by Swami Dayanand Saraswati - Back to Vedas. Ramakrishna Mission by Swami Vivekananda - service to humanity is worship of God. Social reforms include abolition of Sati (1829) and Hindu Widows Remarriage Act (1856).
Mahatma Gandhi transformed India's freedom movement by introducing non-violent civil disobedience (Satyagraha). Key campaigns: Champaran Satyagraha (1917, first in India), Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22), Civil Disobedience/Dandi March (1930), and Quit India Movement (1942 - Do or Die). Gandhi united millions across caste, religion, and region. He is called the Father of the Nation.
